The intriguing, strong-willed female characters in traditional Chinese Term Paper

The intriguing, strong-willed female characters in traditional Chinese fiction and the prescriptive of womanly behavior - Term Paper Example In Confucianism man is the middle of the universe: man cannot stay alone, but with other humans. For humans, the greatest objective is personal pleasure. The necessary situation to accomplish pleasure is through serenity. To acquire serenity, Confucius found man made up of the five connections which are depending on really like and responsibilities. War has to be abolished; and the Great Oneness around the globe should be designed. In Han (220BCE-221CE) China, Confucianism was implemented as the official philosophy. Focusing balance achieved through controlled romantic relationships and ethical responsibilities. Confucianism prescribed a firm social structure with clearly defined tasks. Females were mostly limited to the sector of close relatives’ members. They were brought up to show difference to out-dated parents, constancy to spouses and commitment to kids. Females worked out authority and power only when they presumed the part of mothers and had produced kids. Trained in the domestic arts, women were also frustrated from public and government matters. At court women were limited to the inner legal courts as opposed to the outer legal courts where matters of the state were performed. Confucian offered medications for the way a woman ought to comport herself, emphasizing her proper behaviour in regards to her husband and her part in close relatives members. Although women were recognized as being vir tuous for their sagacity, intelligence and statecraft, it was within the inner legal courts or the inner sector of close relative’s members that ladies operated as active agents and worked out their benefits. Given that information, we can depict that Fei-yen was in violation of the Confucian code. She was completely disrespectful to her husband. In the Confucian code, the wife had to respect the marriage institution and shun away from fidelity, however Fei-yen insulted this institution by

Investigating Stoichiometry Essay Example for Free

Investigating Stoichiometry Essay Quantitative Data: The table shows the mass of reactants potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate, and the mass of the precipitate from the reaction between KI(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq). Mass of precipitate from reaction between KI(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq) Mass of potassium iodide (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001g) 1.701 Mass of lead(II) nitrate (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001g) 1.280 Mass of filter paper (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001g) 0.798 Mass of precipitate + filter paper (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001g) 2.525 Mass of precipitate (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.001g) 1.727 Qualitative Data: 1) After pouring the KI(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq) solution together into the beaker, a glass rod was used to stir the solution so as to make sure it was mixed properly. However, after stirring, when the glass rod was taken out, there were small amounts of precipitate (PbI2(s)) stuck onto the glass rod, and could not be removed. 2) While pouring the remaining mixture into the filter paper, not all the mixture was poured into the filter funnel and paper. Some of the mixture was stuck in the beaker even after trying to wash it down water and scooping it out with the glass rod. 3) After filtrating the mixture, it was observed that there were some parts of the filtrate that was still yellow in colour, with some PbI2 crystals floating around, which meant that some of the residue (PbI2) passed through the filter paper. Even so, another round of filtration was not carried out. The chemical equation obtained from the reaction above: 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s) Step 1) Using stoichiometry, predict the mass of PbI2(s) formed when a solution containing 1.701g of KI(aq) is mixed with a solution containing 1.280g of Pb(NO3)2(aq): First, the limiting reagent is determined by finding out which reagent produces lesser moles of PbI2. Using Pb(NO3)2: Moles of Pb(NO3)2 = 1.280g Pb(NO3)2 x = 0.0038646176mol Pb(NO3)2 Moles of PbI2 = 0.0038646176mol Pb(NO3)2 x = 0.0038646176mol PbI2 Using KI: Moles of KI = 1.701g KI x = 0.010246988mol KI Moles of PbI2 = 0.010246988mol KI x = 0.005123494 mol PbI2 ?Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting reagent. Second, we predict the mass of PbI2 formed. Mass of PbI2 = 0.0038646176mol PbI2 x = 1.781550067g PbI2 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 1.782g PbI2 Step 2) Now we calculate the actual mass of PbI2 formed. Mass of filter paper = 0.798g Mass of precipitate (PbI2) + filter paper = 2.525g Mass of PbI2 produced = 2.525g 0.798g = 1.727g Step 3) Now we calculate the percent yield. Percent yield of PbI2 = PbI2 x 100% = 96.91358025% à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 96.9% Analysis of Results After conducting the experiment, it is found that the percent yield of PbI2 produced was 96.9%, which was rather accurate. However, it was lower than the predicted mass by 3.1%, which could be due to the qualitative results shown above, random errors and inaccuracy of the experiment. When stirring the KI(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq) solution, some of the PbI2 precipitate was stuck onto the glass rod used for stirring, and could not be removed without using fingers, which would have contaminated the solution. This resulted in the decrease in the actual mass of PbI2 precipitate measured, causing the percent yield to be slightly lower than the predicted yield. When pouring the mixture into the filter funnel, not all of the mixture was poured into the filter paper as some of it was stuck inside the beaker. Even though water was used to wash some of the mixture stuck in the beaker into the filter paper, not all of the mixture was filtered. The mixture stuck in the beaker and was not filtered would have decreased the percent yield. Finally, when the mixture was being filtered, some of the PbI2 precipitate passed through the filter paper and went into the filtrate. The filtrate was not filtered again, so some of the PbI2 was not calculated into the final mass of PbI2 produced. This would have decreased the percent yield as well. All the above would have contributed to the fact that the percent yield was 3.1% lower than the predicted yield. Conclusion The results from the experiment showed that the percent yield of PbI2 is 96.9%, which is rather accurate. However, due to random errors and the qualitative results shown above, the percent yield is 3.1% lower than the predicted yield. Limitations and Improvements If I could do the experiment again, As some of the precipitate was stuck onto the glass rod and could not be removed by using my fingers, I could have just used a little bit of water to wash it down back into the mixture. This would have decrease the difference in the percentage between the predicted yield and the percentage yield. Even though water was used to wash some of the mixture into the filter funnel, there was still some mixture stuck in the beaker. The process of using water to wash down the mixture could have been repeated over and over until all the mixture is in the filter funnel. After filtrating the mixture once, some of the PbI2 crystals went through the filter paper and into the filtrate in the conical flask. To make sure all the PbI2 precipitate is counted towards the percent yield, the filtrate could have been filtrated again at least 2 more times. This would have increased the mass of PbI2, which would have made the percent yield closer to 100%.

Michelangelo Buonarroti Essay -- essays research papers

Michelangelo Buonarroti   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, was a very influential man of his time and of all time. Michelangelo was born on March 6, 1475, in a small village a part of the Florentine territory known as Caprese. His father originally did not support his artistic ability, but just a while after Michelangelo’s 13th birthday, his father allowed him to be an apprentice for a famous painter, Domenico Ghirlandaio. Unfortunately there was some conflict between Michelangelo and Ghirlandaio so after a year Michelangelo was no longer his apprentice and he denies Ghirlandaio influenced his works.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Later he stayed with the very powerful Medici family for two years. Lorenzo de’ Medici was a great patron of the arts who gave Michelangelo a chance to expand his artistic talents. He learned his sculpting skills from Bertoldo di Giovanni, who was trained by the great Donatello. He also expanded his education and gained knowledge of poetry and philosophy. Medici also had Michelangelo study the Classic Ancient Roman and Greek arts. Michelangelo became so excellent in Classic Roman arts that his works passed as Roman originals. Due to his talents in the ancient art Michelangelo was present at the excavation of the giant sculpture of Laocoà ¶n.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michelangelo was a very religious man which is shown in many of his paintings. Later in his career he portrayed a bit more of his own idea of ...

Life and Sorrow Essay

She folded her hands upon her bosom, this four-year old child of mine and as her breathing became more labored, prayed as I led her: â€Å"Jesus. You love little children: help me!† that was at midnight on November 28, 1932. A few minutes later, she had joined the angels and left us in anguish that numbered all feelings. But t have since risen from the depths to which Sonia’s death crushed me, and phoenix- like have left my dead ashes, to sing the charms that the death of one so dearly loved can bring to the soul. I have known the darkness of occasional brooding, but I would dwell most upon a struggle with sorrow that has sweetened my nature, which otherwise, would have been stultified by the pain. Pain, I have realized, is beautiful only when one can rise from its depressing power. I have known the people who have become bitter and cynical under the lash of sorrow, and I have known some who have never recovered from anguish. My experience is important only so far as it may help others towards growth: it is worthless to me if it implies vanity. Sonia is, to me, as fairy tale told or a lyric half lost in fancy, a delicate melody unsung. Had she grown into full womanhood, she might have become an intellectual, for she was deliberate and clear- cut in her language, precise in her reasoning, and keen in sensing nuances which matured minds about her could not appreciate; then, I should have been forever lost, the glamour of its poetry never felt even in vague suggestions, and the delicate melodies never perceived. As a friend suggested to me when grief was most oppressive: â€Å"you shall always remember her as a child. â€Å"How beautiful I felt it was! What a beautiful things a man perceives in such sorrow! What keen and living poetry! For nothing but poetry could give such feeling. In such a moment reason would have destroyed me with consummate triumph; for if I had tried to explain why God had snatched away from me the things I loved best in life, I would have allowed reason to rob me of reason. But poetry in all her magnificence came sailing behind the somber shape of sorrow to show me the way to a more beautiful, more full and more nearly perfect life. Sonia shall always live in my memory as a child who wonders why the star shine in the sky and the rain drops from heaven and the grass on the wayside: as a child who find all things pure and true in her innocent eyes. I shall look in those eyes and see so much confidence and faith when I feel that I am losing my own faith and confidence I shall draw from my memory of her a child’s enthusiasm for life, when my heart is heavy and my eyes dim with age. This is my ideal, to see the whole life with a mind mellowed by age, though a heart forever young – wise and happy! Days before she died, I had a premonition to her death; but I dismiss it, consoling myself with the thought that if such a thing should come to pass -heaven forbid – I should perhaps be rewarded for becoming a true, sincere and humble artist through the suffering that would come from such a shocking experience. For the first time in my life, the idea of becoming an artist suddenly lost in its chance. I would rather remain obscure than lost its greatest masterpiece, wrought in my own blood, and polish by the greatest love that I was capable of giving. Like the reeds in the river, I would rather keep my leaves and flowers that be cut up by the great Pan into the flute. The melody of the wind was enough for me as I bent rhythmically with its blowing. I would refuse the greater melody of art that exacts so much. But when her hour came the blade of death cleave my heart, I felt as if I, too, had died and a new soul had emerged, more beautiful, because cleanse of all bitterness. How true it is as poor Oscar Wilde wrote that, the â€Å"Pleasure is for the beautiful body, but pain for the beautiful soul.† But what costly knowledge this first. Experience has indeed taken away more than it has been able to give. It has suddenly occurred to me that the real artist is measured by his ability to utilize misfortune in recreating the soul. I say, â€Å"recreating† Because art is the recreation of life an experience, into that which sooths and ennobles the soul; if a man with any artistic pretensions allows sorrow to destroy him, he is a mere artisan, incapable of producing anything of worth; for, the first thing an artist must recreate, before true art can be realized, is his own soul. Moreover, sorrow must crush, ere it can reshape the man in s mold of glory. The reed must have cut to pieces, and holes bored through it, before it can have produced such magic melodies as their sound. The sun on hill forgot to die. And the lilies revived, and the dragonfly Came back to dream on the river. Before an artist can sweetly harrow the hearts of others, his own must have died. There is a story told of an ambitious singer who thought he would sing for the grand operas. He sang before a celebrated maestro who, in the middle of an aria from Rigoletto, thundered out, â€Å"Enough! Enough! This will never do. Your heart has been broken!† In De profounds, Oscar Wilde, made the following analysis of sorrow in its beginning upon art: Truth in the art is the unity of a thing with itself; the outward rendered expressive of the inward; the soul made incarnate; the body instinct with spirit. For this reason there is no truth comparable with sorrow. There are times when sorrow seems to me to be the only truth. Other things may be illusions of the eye or the appetite, made to blind the one and cloy (overdo) the other, but out of sorrow have the worlds been built, and the birth of a child or a star there is pain.† Indeed, was it not Zeus’ head split open an axe that Athena might spring full grown from it? Besides sorrow’s power of giving birth to art, there is another blessing, which must come, with all art and all of suffering? It is a way of thinking that solidifies and satisfies, becomes profound and permanent; a real philosophy of life and is therefore, a creation, an art itself, and not the mere adoption of some powerful, second-hand outlook that proves worthless when put to the test. Feeling that the lower forms of logic would be useless to me at the time of my deepest sorrow, 1 approached life by the highest route, through â€Å"the deepest voice of human experience† religion. Early the next morning after Sonia’s death, Gods hand rested upon my shoulders. On previous occasions, the more suggestion of her death would drive me into imagining a sudden flight to some distant land. I knew not where, for an obscure place where I might forget to die. But that morning, I felt strangely calm. Not the remote shades of thought about running away from my sorrowing family Goethe’s line: Who never ate his bread in sorrow? Who never spent the midnight hours-Weeping and waiting for the morrow He knows you not, ye heavenly Powers. Lived inky memory I had eaten my bread in sorrow I had passed the right weeping and watching for a More bitter dawn And felt the touch of the Spirit Upon my being I went to the scorch of St. Ignatius in Intramuros where, humbled by sorrow, I sought the Lords forgiveness of the confessional. I offered up my Sonia, and also my two other boys, and even my own life. If He desired to take back his own. The pagan protest that was surging in my boson, I painfully quelled. It is different to give up the things we hold dear on earth. But when Sonia, whom I loved best, had been given up, to what could be resigned, I felt that grown generous to magnanimity. I had ceased to find difficulty in giving up my pride, and I was humbled; I had ceased to fear for my future, and I was no longer in vain _ I gave up all notions of fame, and became myself. But I was better, I was born to greater realization of truth, a fuller feeling of freshness -my new philosophy doubtless has given me a new sense of values. The things I had held dear, in common with other people. I discovered to be a glittering tinsel and hollowness. We find ourselves only after we have lost everything we hold dear in our temporal habitation; we find our soul only after we have divested ourselves of all the flummery of the flesh. For indeed, how can we find our souls when we are wrapped up in matter, so that we cannot give a step, or put our hand, or lift up our eyes, but material things are all about us, following us even to put up our dreams. People say something pleasant to us, and thought it be but â€Å"hot air†, it is enough to puff us up. We would feed our souls upon vanity, and know not it is Barmecides feast. Could we strip ourselves of pride and vanity, things would fall back into their proper places, and we should see the hidden harmony of creation, and piece through the things that alone are seen of the world to those that are unseen, setting no store be these fascinating shadows, ever before the time when they crumble away and vanish into naught, as worldly things must, sooner or later. The Worldly Hope men set their hearts upon Turn ashes – or it prospers; and anon Like snow upon the Desert’s dusky Face, Lightning a little hour or two – was gone. The climax in this grand ascend of sorrow is the perfection of Reality when in moments of devastating grief, my being seemed consumed. I tried to deceive myself by pretending that it was all a dream and would wake up to find Sonia’s death a mere fancy, the force illusion would always vanish and a newer, more vivid, more convincing, more permanent if painful realization would reveal to me that the whole of human experience this side of eternity is nothing but a dream which with death, finally comes to an awakening to the only reality intended by the Maker of Life. I am convinced that life in this temporary habitation is a vague and miserable dream, a nightmare in which the dreamer is driven from one path to another, now frightened by life, now terrified by the thought of death; until one realizes that there is this nightmare a symbol of Reality that is coming with the dawn and the awakening. This realization of the reality must make a real artist of a man. Broken with pain, the soul dies to be reborn, stronger and more beautiful; enriched and ennobled by sorrow, the artist in the man rises above himself; shorn of all fineries and pettiness – all none – essential, in a word, the artist flows naturally towards the infinite whither all artistic effort must be directed. Thither must I direct my art †¦ Art to me had ceased to be artful and artificial. It had become the natural life of the soul; it is the voice of my soul crying out to heaven for a vision of Sonia, pleading for a final communication with her. I shall remove everything about me. When the last word is written and my hands drop limp and lifeless by my side. I hope to hear the gentle pattern of a little feet and the tender touch of a little hands around my neck†¦SONIA.

Social Performance and Social Influence

Social Performance and Social Influence Introduction Social performance is the study of how the presence of others affects behavior. At times, the mere presence of others can have a facilitating or motivating effect, improving performance. However, when others are present, people may also become hindered or less motivated. This class will explore how one's perception of others determines one's response. Hetherington, Anderson, Norton, and Newson (2003) explored how eating behavior is influenced when eating alone, with strangers, or with friends.Would you predict that eating with others has a facilitating effect, increasing food intake, or the opposite effect, decreasing the amount of food eaten? Research on social influence, which refers to how the attitudes and opinions of others influence one's attitudes and opinions, is one of the greatest contributions of social psychological research in understanding human behavior. This class focuses on two different types of social influence, one that serves to maintain group norms (social control: conformity and obedience) and the other that aims to change group norms (social change by minority influence and innovation).Social psychologist, Dr. Robert Cialdini has researched basic principles that govern how one person may influence another. You will read about these six principles in his 2002 article â€Å"The Science and Practice of Persuasion. † Social Performance Aristotle first called humans social animals. People tend to gather, play, and work in groups. Groups fulfill a variety of functions such as satisfying the need to belong, providing support and intimacy, and assisting in accomplishing tasks that individuals could not accomplish alone, etc.In Chapter 13 of the textbook, groups will be defined as two or more people working together on a task in which the outcome is quantifiable. This discussion will focus on two major areas that have been researched since the end of the 19th century: social facilitation and social loafing. Social Facilitation At first glance, these terms seem to be opposing behaviors: social facilitation refers to the fact that people work harder in groups, whereas social loafing describes their tendency reduce their efforts when in groups.The difference, it appears, is how people view the individuals in their groups–whether they perceive those in the group as being with them us or against them. If group members are against them, they perceive them as competitors, evaluators, or sources of comparison, which is likely to increase or facilitate their efforts. If they are with them, sharing in the demands of the task and evaluation, they are likely to â€Å"loaf† or reduce our efforts. These findings appear counterintuitive.Research on social facilitation began with Triplett (1989) who observed that cyclists pedaled faster, or performed better, when others were present than when performing alone. He argued that the other biker was a stimulus, arousing a competitive instinct in the cyclist. He tested his theory by asking children to wind fishing reels either alone or beside other children. The majority of the children turned the wheel faster when working alongside another child than when reeling alone. Allport (1924) termed this effect social facilitation.Still, it seemed that many disagreed about whether the presence of others increased or decreased performance on tasks. Zajonc (1965) renewed interest in social facilitation, and suggested that the presence of others enhanced a dominant response–which is the most probable response on a given task. If the task is simple and well-learned, the dominant response will be facilitated. For example, if you were a skilled concert pianist, performing in front of others would increase your proficiency on the task; you would play beautifully.Since you are not skilled at this art, being observed by others would no doubt cause anxiety and would result in quite the opposite effect, inhibit ing your performance. Zajonc was suggesting that the presence of others increases drive. Others were still arguing that it was the evaluation or the competition associated with others being present that produced the drive. Whether it was mere presence or evaluation apprehension that increased the drive, the drive theory remained the dominant thought of the time.Alternative approaches to social-facilitation effects fall into three classes: The first was the continued thought that the presence of others increases drive by evaluation apprehension. The second thought suggested that the situation places demands on the individual to behave in a particular way; individuals are engaged in self-presentation and self-awareness. The third idea argued that the presence of others affects focus and attention to the task, meaning that the task becomes cognitive. Hence, the controversy over whether it is the mere presence of others or evaluation that causes social facilitation is unresolved.Social Loafing Social facilitation research demonstrates that the presence of others sometimes enhances performance, yet at times reduces it. But, how does working with others affect motivation? Many would argue that groups should energize and motivate. The tendency for individuals to work less hard on a collective task than on an individual task is called social loafing. For example, those group projects at work or school where a few individuals did the majority of the work–social loafing.Research in this area has been conducted in a way that makes individuals believe that they are either working alone or working with others–then measures efforts toward the task. For example, Ringelmann (Kravitz & Martin, 1986) had volunteers pull on a rope as hard as they could in groups of varying sizes. Their efforts decreased as group sizes increased. This was explained in two ways: their motivation decreased as groups size increased or maybe the larger groups were not able to coordinate their efforts efficiently. Researchers sought to tease apart these two factors, focusing on motivation.You can imagine that it was difficult to devise methods that lead participants to believe they were either working alone (when they were not) or with others (when they were working alone), which lends to the difficulty of studying social loafing. However, over 100 studies (Steiner, 1972; Griffith, Fichman, & Moreland, 1989; Jackson & Williams, 1985; Henningsen et al. , 2000) have tested the effects of groups on motivation, and social loafing has been replicated in most of these studies. Other theories have attempted to explain social loafing.Social impact theory states that when a group is working together, the expectation is that the effort should be diffused across all participants, resulting in diminished effort. Arousal reduction postulates that the presence of others should increase drive only when they are observers and reduce our efforts when they are coworkers. Evaluation potential suggests that social loafing occurs because individual efforts are so difficult to identify during a collective task; one can easily hide in the crowd or may feel they will not be acknowledged for their hard work.Dispensability of effort argues that individuals may feel their efforts are unnecessary or dispensable. The group simply does not need them. An integrative theory: the collective effort model states that individuals will work hard on a task only to the degree to which they believe their efforts will be instrumental in leading to outcomes they value, personally. Hence, the value they place on the task (and their efforts) depends on their personal beliefs, task meaningfulness, favorable interactions with the group, the nature of the rewards, and the extent to which their future goals are impacted by the task.Social loafing can be moderated, or reduced, when individuals' efforts can be identified or evaluated, when individuals are working on a task they deem as impor tant or of personal relevance, or when individuals are working with cohesive groups or close friends. Individual differences or characteristics also influence who engages in social loafing less because they value collective outcomes. For example, a need for affiliation, a hard work ethic, or high self-monitoring can influence effort. It should be clear that the mere presence of others is arousing.It appears that if others are competitors or evaluators they facilitate motivation to work harder. If individuals see others as a part of themselves, they can hide behind them or their efforts can get lost in the efforts of others. Further research in this area can help us determine how our view of others affects our motivation and performance. Social Influence Processes of Control and Change Social influence is one of the primary research areas in social psychology and refers to the ways in which opinions and attitudes influence the opinions and attitudes of others.Two types of social infl uence can be identified in groups: influence aimed at maintaining group norms (social control) or changing group norms (social change). The most common form of social control is conformity, where an individual complies with or accepts the group's views. Since the influence is typically within a context of a group of people influencing an individual, it is referred to as majority influence. Another type of social control is obedience, where individuals obey an authority figure, often against their will.For group norms to change, a small subset of the group must resist the majority view, which is termed minority influence. If minorities never resisted, group opinions would persist, fashions would never change, innovations would not come about, etc. It must be clear that the term majority refers to the larger group of people who hold the normative view and has power over others. Minority groups tend to be small, hold nonnormative positions, and wield very little power.This study textbo ok is concerned with two influence processes: processes that ensure that others adhere to the group's position (social control; conformity and obedience) or processes that aim to change the group's position (social change: innovation and active minorities). Social influence has studied how individuals conform to the majority, often by giving an obvious erroneous response to a question. According to Festinger (1950, 1954), this occurs because there are social pressures for groups to reach consensus, especially when there is a group goal.Individuals seek social approval and seek others to verify their opinions. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) distinguish between normative social influence (conforming to expectations of others) and informational social influence (accepting information from the group as reality). Another view is that people conform over concerns for positive self-evaluations, to have good relationships with others, and to better understand a situation by reducing uncertainty. Social influence also addresses why people comply with acts that clearly cause harm to another.The study of obedience is intimately tied to one social psychologist–Stanley Milgram (1963). His post-WWII research aimed to understand why people willingly engaged in the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis. People probably preferred to believe these were evil, disturbed men who were intrinsically evil? However, many of them claimed they were not responsible for their behavior. After all, they were simply following orders. In Milgram's (1963) classic study, he led participants (who were assigned to be â€Å"teachers†) to believe they were administering harmful shocks to the â€Å"learners† each time they made an error on a task.The experimenter (the authority figure) demanded they increase the level of shock for each incorrect response. As shocks increased, the receiver (the learner, who was out of the sight of the teacher) responded with distressed reactions. Howeve r, the teacher was encouraged, even demanded, to continue the experiment, even though he believed the learner was experiencing extreme distress. The question was, to what extent normal people would obey the instructions of the authority figure and administer harmful levels of shock to harm another individual.Milgram's results showed that a full 65% of all participants administered every level of shock, surpassing levels believed to do fatal harm to subjects. Milgram's findings have been replicated with consistent results. Why did they obey? Milgram offered the following explanations: (a) they had entered into a contract with the experimenter and did not wish to spoil the experiment; (b) they were absorbed in the experiment and lost sight of the implications of their actions; (c) the participants are acting for the experimenter; they may be pushing the buttons, but they are not responsible, the experimenter is.Notice these are all situational explanations; participants were put into a powerful role relationship with the experimenter. However, when the experimenter was not visible, or another participant played the role of the experimenter, obedience rates decreased, but did not fall to zero, indicating the role relationship did not fully account for their obedience. Milgram's research remains some of the most intriguing and influential in social psychology. Minority InfluenceMoscovici's (1976) book Social Influence and Social Change, he argues that minorities can create conflict by offering a different perspective, thereby challenging the dominant or majority view. Moscovici claims that people trying to avoid conflict may dismiss the minority position, and possibly denigrate it. However, when the minority demonstrates commitment to their position, the majority may consider the minority view as a viable alternative. He called this the minority's behavioral style–meaning the way the message is organized and communicated.By standing up to the majority, the minority demonstrates that it is certain, confident, committed, and not easily persuaded. Researchers have compared majority and minority influence. Conversion theory is the dominant perspective and argues that all forms of influence, whether minority or majority, create conflict that individuals are motivated to reduce. However, people employ different processes depending on whether the conflict is the result of majority influence or minority influence. Comparison process suggests that people focus attention on fitting in, or complying with what others say.Their goal is to identify with the group and comply with the majority position, often times without examining the majority's arguments in detail. Social comparison can drive majority influence, but cannot motivate minority influence, according to Moscovici (1976), because people desire to disassociate themselves with undesirable groups. Because minority groups tend to be distinctive, they stand out, and this encourages a validati on process where some examine the judgments in order to confirm or validate them–to see what it is the minority saw or to understand the minority's view.This process can lead to increased message processing which results in an attitude change on an indirect, latent, or private level. Convergent-divergent theory is proposed by Nemeth (1986) and simply states that people expect to share the same attitude as the majority and to differ from the minority (the false-consensus heuristic). Stress is the result of realizing that the majority has a different perspective than oneself, especially if one is in the physical presence of the majority. Stress narrows one's attention and majority influence, and then leads to convergent thinking.Minorities, on the other hand, do not cause high levels of stress, since they hold different views, which allows for less restricted focus of attention and leads to a greater consideration of alternatives that may not have been considered without the in fluence of the minority view. This results in creative and original solutions. Other theories that integrate minority and majority influence include mathematical models, objective-consensus models, conflict-elaboration theory, context/comparison model, and self-categorization theory.More contemporary models include social-cognitive responses with an emphasis on information-processing such as the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic systematic model we discussed in an earlier chapter. New research continues to develop. Conclusion This module reviewed social psychological research that has made great contributions to the understanding of human behavior. Early research (e. g. , Triplett, 1898; Zajonc, 1965) led to the beginning of the relatively new field of social psychology.Research investigating social performance–whether performance is improved (social facilitation) or hindered (social loafing) by the presence of others became widely studied as researchers inquired about under what circumstances and what variables determined our response. Supplementary reading by Hetherington (2006) examined the effects of the presence of others on eating behavior. Milgram's (1963) research on obedience may be some of the most cited research in social psychology. Cialdini's contributions to the study of social influence (and social psychology in general) have been significant, as well.References Allport , F. (1924). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 159-182. Cialdini, R. B. , & Goldstein, N. J. (2002). The science and practice of persuasion. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,43(2), 40-50. Deutsch, M. & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636 Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271-282.Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 337-360. Griffith, T. L. , Fichman, M. , & Moreland, R. L. (1989). Social loafing and social facilitation: An empirical test of the cognitive-motivational model of performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 253-271. Henningsen, D. D. , Cruz, M. G. & Miller, M. L. (2000). Role of social loafing in predeliberation decision making. Group dynamics: Theory, research and practice, 4, 168-175. Hetherington, M. M. , Anderson, A. S. , Norton, G.N. M. , & Newson, L. (2006). Situational effects on meal intake: A comparison of eating alone with eating with others. Physiology & Behavior, 88, 498-505. Jackson, J. M. , & Williams, K. D. (1985). Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 937-942. Kravitz, D. A. & Martin, B. (1986). Ringelmann rediscovered: The original article. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 936-941. Milgram, S. (1963 ). Behavioral study of obedience.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378. Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social change. London, England: Academic Press. Nemeth, C. (1986). Differential contributions of majority and minority influence. Psychological Review, 93, 23-32. Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group processes and productivity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Triplett, H. C. (1989). The dynamogenic factors in peacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533. Zajonc, R. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269-274.

Loneliness in Mice and Men essays

Loneliness in Mice and Men essays Essay on Loneliness in the book Of Mice and Man I would say that the whole story is mostly about loneliness. I am sure the author did it on purpose. Even though he wrote about feelings and emotions the characters in the book had, it applies to most ordinary people. Most of us feel lonely sometimes... There was a lot of characters that were lonely in the book. I would start with Lennie because I think he was a kind of a main character in the book. He certainly was lonely, but I am not really sure it made much difference to him, because he was a little bit insane. He didnt have any friends except of George. But he felt that he doesn't sometimes understand what George is talking about. From the book I got the impression that George is more like Lennies father than a friend. Gorge looked after Lennie all the time. Every time Lennie got into some trouble George always helped him out. George was lonely in a certain way too. Lennie wasnt actually Georges equal friend, Lennie was just someone he took care of. He was depending on him, and George knew it. I think he felt that Lennie was a kind of dead-weight for him. Of course he liked him, but they always lost their job, because Lennie had done something. And George just wanted to settle down, have a job and a girl-friend. There were other lonely characters in the book too. Curleys wife, who we mentioned in our previous essay, Crooks and Candy. The other ranch-workers never talked to Crooks, because he was black. They wouldnt event let him go to the bunk-house to play cards with them, because they thought that he stinks. Crooks felt of course miserable and embarrassed. The only thing he could do was to keep himself isolated from all the other people. That was his defence. Candy was old, thats why he was alone most of the time. Together with George and Lennie he dreamed of their own farm. ...

Introduction to the Middle Paleolithic

Introduction to the Middle Paleolithic The Middle Paleolithic period (ca 200,000 to 45,000 years ago or so) is the period during which Archaic humans including Homo sapiens neanderthalensis appeared and flourished all over the world. Handaxes continued in use, but a new kind of stone tool kit was createdcalled the Mousterian, it included purposefully prepared cores and specialized flake tools. The living method in the Middle Paleolithic for both Homo sapiens and our Neanderthal cousins included scavenging, but there is also clear evidence of hunting and gathering activities. Deliberate human burials, with some evidence (if somewhat controversial) of ritual behavior, are found at a handful of sites such as La Ferrassie and Shanidar Cave. By 55,000 years ago, archaic humans were tending to their elderly, in evidence at sites such as La Chapelle aux Saintes. Some evidence for cannibalism is also found in places such as Krapina and Blombos Cave. Early Modern Humans in South Africa The Middle Paleolithic ends with the gradual disappearance of the Neanderthal and the ascendancy of Homo sapiens sapiens, about 40,000-45,000 years ago. That didnt happen overnight, however. The beginnings of modern human behaviors are mapped out in the Howiesons Poort/Stillbay Industries of southern Africa beginning perhaps as long ago as 77,000 years and leaving Africa along a Southern Dispersal Route. Middle Stone Age and the Aterian A handful of sites seem to suggest that the dates for the change to the Upper Paleolithic are way out of whack. The Aterian, a stone tool industry long thought to have been dated to the Upper Paleolithic, is now recognized as Middle Stone Age, dated perhaps as long ago as 90,000 years ago. One Aterian site showing early Upper Paleolithic-type behavior but dated much earlier is at Grottes des Pigeons in Morocco, where shell beads dated 82,000 years old have been discovered. Another problematic site is Pinnacle Point South Africa, where red ochre use has been documented at ca 165,000 years ago. Only time will tell if these dates continue to be held up. And Neanderthal hung on, too; the latest known Neanderthal site is Gorhams Cave in Gibraltar, about 25,000 years ago. Finally, the debate still is unsettled about the Flores individuals who may represent a separate species, Homo floresiensis, dated to the Middle Paleolithic but extending well into the UP.